CONTACT US

Contact

Branches

Menu

Your partner in profitable animal production

Training Zone

Training Videos

Livestock Management Articles

Search Articles

Filter Articles By

Post Categories

Results

  • Horses

Care of Your Horse

General

Grooming

Grooming of the horses coat and mane and tail keeps it free of dirt and matting, which could become a site for parasite infestation and skin disease, or cause chaffing when the horse is tacked up and ridden. It allows the owner to check the general health and condition of the horse and also develops the trust and affection essential between horse and rider. Horses ridden regularly should be groomed daily before being ridden and brushed after riding, after the sweat has dried. Horses that are not being ridden or working should be groomed at least weekly.

Hooves

Hooves should be checked before and after each ride, or at least once a week (daily is ideal) for hoof disease or injury and to ensure that shoes are fitting properly. A hoof pick should be used to remove stones, mud, dirt and dead horn constituents. As horses hooves continue to grow they need to be checked by a qualified farrier every  4-6 weeks.

Teeth

Horses’ teeth grow throughout life, but once worn away or broken the horse is no longer able to eat properly, and in the wild would die. Commercial horse rations help to maintain tooth health, but teeth should be checked annually by your veterinarian, who may have to rasp sharp edges.

Exercise and Companionship

It is essential that horses are exercised and stimulated. They are social animals,  enjoying the company of humans or other horses, and may form attachments with a cat or dog if there is no other companionship.

Nutrition

Horses are natural grazers and a large portion of their daily diet is made up of forage such as grazing or hay, of which they will consume 1 – 2% of their body weight daily. They will spend 16 – 18 hours a day eating and require small and frequent meals of concentrate feed. The type and amount of concentrate or grain fed will depend on factors such as age, pregnancy,  body condition and work or exercise that the horse is required to do. Improper feeding such as over-feeding, spoilt food or a sudden change in diet can lead to complications such as colic or laminitis. Overfeeding young horses can result in growth disorders or osteochondrosis – a defect in the formation of cartilage.   Ideally a horse should have access to pasture (1-3 acres/horse) with good pole fencing (NEVER barbed wire) which has been cleared of all potentially poisonous plants (eg lantana), debris and rubbish and checked for holes or large stones. Good quality roughage is vital in a horse’s diet. It should be available at all times.  Water  Horses will drink between 40 – 50 litres of water a day, more if exercising and must have constant access to clean fresh water.  Bedding Horses should not be required to stand on very hard surfaces for extended periods of time, so the stable must be bedded with clean straw or dust-free wood shavings. These should be ‘mucked out’ at least once a day and all manure removed and disposed of by composting or burning. This helps to control internal parasites and flies by breaking the life cycle.  Shelter Horses on pasture require shelter from wind, rain and sun. If natural shelter such as trees are not available a three sided shelter can be constructed. Horse blankets should be used in very cold weather, particularly for animals that are sick or very old.

Parasites

Although horses do pick up ticks, these should be quickly seen during regularly grooming and removed by hand or with tweezers. Some acaricides are registered for use on horses but read warning labels carefully.
NEVER USE AMITRAZ-BASED ACARICIDES ON HORSES.
EKTOBAN (cypermethrin) will kill ticks on horse and also help control flies and lice.
SUPADIP (Chlorfenvinphos) is also suitable for tick control. It is essential to control flies around the stable and the yard, particularly the bot fly. (See Fly Control)

Internal parasites such as strongyles (large and small), ascarids, pinworm and tapeworm can effect the health of your horse and a regular deworming programme with an approved anthelmintic such as DECTOMAX INJECTABLE is essential (See Endoparasites of Horses)

Vaccinations

All horses must be vaccinated for horse-sickness, tetanus and rabies. Depending on whether your horse will be traveling and racing or competing, there are other vaccinations required eg South Africa requires Equine Flu vaccination. Consult your veterinarian.

Read More
  • Horses

Colic in Horses

Colic is a serious condition in horses occurring mainly in stabled horses with scarce grazing. It is the most common cause of death in horses. Colic is not a single disease; it is used to describe any disease of the abdominal organs accompanied by severe pain.

Colic can be caused by any one of a number of conditions. Sometimes one condition will lead to another, e.g. obstruction causing bloat.

•    Over-eating, particularly of concentrate feed.
•    Fermentation of feed in the stomach, for whatever reason, with the resulting production of excess gas.
•    Inflammation of the digestive tract, especially the small intestine. This is usually accompanied by purging. This may be caused by internal parasites. (See Endoparasites of horses)
•    Obstruction in the digestive tract, usually the large intestine and often caused by sand eaten while grazing.
•    Twist in the intestine.
•    Bloat of the intestine (usually after an obstruction)
•    Disease of liver, kidneys or urethras.
•    Drinking extremely cold water, especially after working hard.
•    Horses that eat their bedding are often affected.

SYMPTOMS

•    Restlessness
•    Head back, looking at hind-quarters
•    Kicking at the belly
•    Stamping of the fore-legs
•    Teeth grinding
•    Pulse rate rises
•    Shivering
•    Lying down and rolling
•    Lying on the back with the legs in the air
•    Attempting to urinate unsuccessfully, with a wide-legged stance.
•    When the colic becomes severe – the horse will go down, throw its head around and may injure itself without appearing to feel the pain of the injury. It will break into a cold sweat and the mucous membranes of the eye and mouth will turn a dirty dark purple. At this stage the horse is very close to death. The colour of the mucous membranes is a good indicator of the severity of the condition. If they are still a clean-looking dark pink or red colour, it is not too severe. Once they turn dark red or purple, the situation is very serious. If the colic is caused by over-eating or an obstruction the symptoms are usually not so severe. The animal is uncomfortable and listless, lying down and getting up frequently. If the colic is caused by bloat the colic is severe. The animal is restless, walking, rolling and showing signs of extreme pain.

TREATMENT

Colic is a very serious, potentially fatal condition with severe pain and really needs the expertise of a veterinarian to deal with it. If the vet is not available or while waiting, there are some things the horse owner can do.
•     Remove any feed from your horse’s stall
•    If your horse is lying down and quiet it’s OK to leave them there
•    If they are repeatedly getting up and down, quietly walk your horse around until your veterinarian gets there
•    The vet will probably use an injectable narcotic to ease the severe pain.
•    Purgatives such as liquid paraffin or raw linseed oil to encourage purging may be given. If the horse is bloated – turpentine or liquid phenol may be added. This is best given by stomach tube.
•    The vet may give a purgative injection, but not in cases where the colic is caused by over-eating or inflammation of intestines.
•    If the horse is constipated, manual removal of faeces and enema will relieve constipation.
•    If colic is caused by twisting of intestines, or if the intestine has burst from bloat, there is no remedy.

Ref:    Handbook of Stock Diseases; Monnig and Veldman        http://horse-rehab.com/the-signs-of-colic-in-horses/ 

Read More
  • Horses

Correct Methods of Drenching and Stomach Tubing Horses

Drenching – giving a medicine or liquid preparation by mouth into the stomach of an animal.Most worm remedies (anthelmintics) are administered by drenching (dosing), as are preparations such as bloat treatments, treatment for diarhhoea and constipation and other medicines. Incorrect drenching can cause inhalation pneumonia, which is difficult to treat and can prove fatal. It is essential that the owner always follows manufacturers’ directions when administering any treatment by mouth. Always use the correct dose for the age and size of the horse. If a horse is weak or undernourished smaller doses should be used. Some horses will tolerate being drenched with a syringe and if so this method should be used. (See opposite.) This is a suitable method of giving oral medication and worm remedies. The syringe is pushed up against the side of the horse’s mouth, avoiding the teeth and the plunger slowly depressed to allow the liquid into the mouth. Many horses will not allow drenching with a syringe or bottle and in these cases a stomach tube will have to be used. This is a skilled procedure requiring expertise and should never be undertaken by inexperienced personnel. Usually the procedure will be done by a veterinarian. The stomach tube is a 3m long stiff, smooth tube with a 10-20cm outside diameter. The front end is rounded and a funnel is inserted for poring liquids at the back end. The tube is softer and more flexible than that used for cattle. Unlike with cattle, in horses the tube in inserted through the nasal cavity. Method The nostril (usually the left) is cleaned and a twitch applied to the upper lip. The point of the tube is inserted into the nostril. With the right forefinger and thumb the tube is held down on the floor of the nasal passage, while gently pushing the tube in with the right hand. The tube will travel through the nasal cavity for about 25cm before reaching the larynx and oesophagus. When the tube reaches the larynx the horse will swallow. By gently pushing the tube at exactly the same moment as swallowing it will pass through the pharynx into the oesphagus, another 7-100mm. If the horse does not make the reflex swallowing motion when the tube touches the larynx, it should be gently moved up and down against the larynx until the horse swallows. When the tube is pushed in it can be seen on the left side of the neck moving down the gullet in the groove just above the windpipe. If the horse coughs or chokes, or if the tube moves easily with no obstruction, it may have entered the windpipe by mistake. The tube should be gently withdrawn into the mouth and the procedure started again. Once the tube has reached the stomach, the end should be raised to a level above the horse’s throat and the liquid poured into the funnel. When all the liquid has drained into the stomach, the funnel end should be lowered to below the horse’s throat and the tube slowly withdrawn. There may be some bleeding from the nostril but this should be minimal and transitory and stop soon after the tube is removed.                REF:    Handbook of Stock Diseases; Monnig and Veldman    www.equidblog.com 

Read More
  • Horses

Endoparasites of Horses

All horses carry a worm burden many of which cause no damage to the host. However it is essential to control these internal parasites, as severe infestation can result in poor growth, unthriftiness and in extreme cases can prove fatal.
Ascarids Parascaris equarum
The horse swallows ascarid eggs, which hatch into larvae in the intestine. The larvae penetrate the intestinal wall and migrate to the liver and lungs. Their presence in the liver causes the animal to cough, expelling the larvae into the mouth, when they are reswallowed. On this second arrival in the intestine, the larvae mature into adults which can reach a length of 35cm. Foals are usually most affected. The symptoms include poor growth, potbelly, coughing. In extreme cases there may be diarrhoea, lung and liver damage, pneumonia, intestinal blockages and death.
Strongyles Strongylus sp. Redworm or bloodworm
The so-called large strongyles cause the most damage. Adults mate and lay eggs in the large intestine. The eggs are passed out in the faeces and hatch into infective, well-protected larvae in the grass or in the stable. The horse swallows the larvae in food or water. They burrow through various parts of the body, including the arteries of the intestine and the liver, before returning to the large intestine to mature into adults and reproduce.
Small strongyles have a similar life cycle, but cause less damage as they do not migrate through the organs of the body. They are the most common worm found in horses and only cause a problem when infestation is massive.
Symptoms of strongyles infestation can include diarrhoea, colic, decreased food efficiency and performance. There may be organ damage and intestinal blockages in extreme cases.
Pinworm Oxyuris Equi
These small worms do not cause damage of the intestinal tract. The female crawls out of the anus of the horse and lays her eggs in a sticky substance under the horse’s tail. It is this substance which causes extreme irritation to the horse. The animals may rub their tails and hindquarters until an open wound is caused.
Bots
Bots are not true helminths, but the larvae of the bot fly. The female fly lays her eggs on the coat of the horse. These eggs are ingested by the horse licking or nosing the site. The larvae hatch in the tongue, migrate down the oesophagus to the stomach where they mature. The maturing larvae attach to the lining of the stomach or small intestine causing erosion and ulcerations at the site of attachment. They develop for 10 – 12 months before being passed out in the faeces. The adult fly emerges after 1 – 2 months and the cycle begins again.
Tapeworm Anoplocephalidae
The intermediate host of the horse tapeworm is a small mite that lives in damp grass and is swallowed by the horse while grazing. The eggs hatch in the intestine of the horse and develop into the adult tapeworm. The tapeworm consists of a number of ‘segments’ each containing male and female reproductive organs, where the eggs are formed. As these egg-bearing segments mature, they become detached from the tapeworm and are passed out through the faeces which are then swallowed by the mites, continuing the cycle.
Horse tapeworms are not common and are difficult to detect as the eggs are not found in faeces samples. Symptoms include unthriftiness, rough coat, lethargy and loss of appetite.

Prevention and Control

•    Remove manure regularly (at least once daily) from stables and dispose of it by composting or burning.
•    Keeping yards clean, removing manure and litter.
•    Routinely discing or harrowing in manure on pastures and paddocks
•    Leaving paddocks empty for a period or rotating with ruminants, which have different parasites.
•    Control of flies to prevent infestation by bots.
•    Prevent horses from grazing wet grass where the mite carrying tapeworm eggs lives.
•    Routine testing of dung samples to establish worm load and then judicious dosing with an approved anthelmintic.
Read More
  • Horses

Fly Control

he main nuisance flies in Zimbabwe are the common house fly (Musca domestica) and the stable fly (Stomoxys calcitrans).These constitute a major source of economic loss to livestock breeders for two reasons:
1.    They cause loss of production in terms of milk and meat because of the stress placed on animals under attack and
2.    More importantly, they transmit disease from infected to sick animals e.g. opthalmia, mastitis, parafilariasis.
Any fly control program must take place early in the breeding season i.e. as the weather starts to warm up, after the first shower and before the first major rains. If started too late, the fly population will be so high that it may be impossible to control it. To be successful, a fly control program must target all stages of the fly life cycle at the same time and must rely on management and biological methods as well as insecticides.
Flies lay their eggs on rotting vegetable matter, manure, refuse etc. They need a damp, (but not too wet) and warm environment. The first control method is to remove potential breeding sites.  Animal housing such as calf pens, poultry houses, piggeries, stables etc should be kept clean and hygienic. Particular attention should be paid to areas such as drains. Manure must be collected and treated in one of several ways. Composting the manure in heaps causes the manure to heat up to such an extent that the eggs and maggots cannot survive. The surface of the compost will have to be covered or treated with a product such as Neproex 50. Drying the manure removes the moisture necessary for development of the maggot and is also a friendly environment for predators of the eggs and maggots. A third option is to wet the manure excessively e.g. dairy slurry pits, where the environment is too wet to allow successful breeding by the flies.
Flies rest on buildings, walls, ceilings and these areas should be sprayed to run off with a recognised insecticide, such as Agita 10WG, following the manufacturer’s instructions.
The third area to attack flies is on the animals while they are feeding. Synthetic pyrethroids such as Deltatick Pouron, Ektoban, Paracide, Pouricide NF and Sentinel 15 will kill flies landing on the animal.
There are also many types of fly traps on the market, or it is possible to make them oneself. However, fly traps on their own, without any of the abovementioned control methods will have little chance of controlling the fly population.
Read More
  • Horses

Post-Mortem Techniques in Livestock

Post mortem (PM) is the procedure carried out after death to determine the cause of death. It is a specialised procedure, requiring a good knowledge of animal anatomy. The operator needs to know what normal healthy tissue looks like and this cannot be learnt from books, only from experience. The farmer should attend post mortems conducted by the vet and look at healthy tissue at abattoirs etc.
Before beginning the PM it is important to make note of place, date, owner’s name, species, number of animals affected, number of deaths, breed, sex, age, brand or tag number, hours since death and the history. The post mortem should take place as soon after death as possible. Ideally a second person should take notes as the PM progresses.

Equipment required

  • Rubber boots, protective clothing, rubber apron or lab coat, rubber gloves.
  • Knives – large and small, with sharpening steel.
  • Scissors (various sizes) and saws; bone cutters
  • A number of sterile, open-mouthed screw top jars of different sizes for specimen collection
  • Formalin (40% formaldehyde)
  • Sterile swabs in test tubes
  • Alcohol cleaned slides for smears, preferably in a rack or box
  • Spatula
  • Plastic bags for specimens
  • Petri dishes
  • Labels
  • Soap, water, disinfectant and towel.
All samples e.g. smears, slides, tissue sections, should be labeled and stored as they are taken.

Procedure

  • Carefully note external abnormalities. Check orifices, genitals and mammary glands. Make note of any injuries, wounds, parasites.
  • Unless you suspect anthrax or rabies lay back the skin
  • Remove the udder in females and the genitals in males. Cut away the front leg by incision under the shoulder blade. Open the abdominal cavity by incision from sternum to pubes.
  • Check and note whether there is peritoneal fluid in the cavity. Make note of amount and colour. Check absence or presence of fat and intestinal gas.
  • Open the thoracic cavity along the diaphragm. Cut through the sternum at the centre point and saw through the upper ribs. Note whether there is fluid in the thoracic cavity and pericardial sack.
  • Remove the 4 parts of the stomach in ruminants, or the stomach in non-ruminants and the spleen by cutting the oesphagus and small intestine. Before cutting, tie off the gullet and small intestine in 2 places and cut between them. This prevents gut contents from spilling into the area. Remove the rest of the alimentary canal, tying off at the rectum.
  • Examine the liver in position. Make note of size, colour, shape, presence of cysts, texture etc. Note gall bladder and contents. Remove the liver and take tissue section for laboratory analysis.
  • Remove and examine the kidneys. Note the amount of fat, size, consistency and colour.
  • Examine the bladder and note amount and colour of urine.
  • Remove the thoracic organs. The heart is removed by cutting through the large blood vessels suspending it. The lungs are removed by cutting the trachea. The heart sack is now cut open and any abnormalities noted. The lungs are examined for elasticity, colour, and texture, presence of froth or solidification.
  • All other organs – tongue, pharynx, larynx, and oesophagus are removed and examined. Tissue sections may be taken for lab analysis.
  • The head is sawed open and the brain and cavities of the head examined.
  • Lymph nodes are examined throughout and abnormalities noted.
  • The organs receiving the most attention will be those related to the disease symptoms of the animal or the disease suspected.
BEWARE !!! If you have any reason to suspect anthrax or rabies as the cause of death, or in the cases of unexplained sudden death, the carcass must never be opened. If anthrax is suspected, a blood slide taken from a cut on the ear is sent to the labs for confirmation. If rabies is suspected – the head should be removed intact and sent to the lab in a sealed container. For small animals the whole carcass can be sent.
In both cases, protective clothing, including boots, gloves, face mask and goggles must be worn. The carcasses should be burned or deep buried under stones with quick-lime.
Read More
  • Horses

Zoonoses of Animals and Man

A zoonosis is a disease or infection naturally transmissible between vertebrate animals, including man. There are over 700 zoonoses worldwide, of which 150+ are viral or bacterial. It is estimated that 10% of mankind will suffer from a zoonosis at some time in their lives.
Zoonoses can be bacterial, viral, protozoal, fungal or caused by worms or insects. This paper deals only with some important zoonoses that may affect livestock farmers in Zimbabwe.
Ref:     Zoonoses Animal Diseases and Man. LW van der Heever and JH du Preez
Download:
PDF icon Zoonoses of Animals and Man.pdf
Read More
  • Sheep & Goats

Bloat in Cattle and Sheep

Also known as TYMPANY this condition occurs in cattle and sheep, but is more common in cattle. When animals digest food, gas is produced in the rumen. This is normal and the cow gets rid of the gas by frequent belching, made possible by rumen contractions. If the gas builds up faster than the cow can get rid of it, the rumen swells up, may become paralysed and presses up against the lungs, causing eventual death by suffocation. The cause of this sudden gas build up is usually excessive starch and often seen when animals are grazed on young green fast growing lucerne or clover. If the bubbles of gas are large and sit above the food, the bloat is normally fairly easy to treat.  However, if the surface tension of the gas bubbles is low, the bubbles are small and mix up with the food. This is the condition known as “frothy bloat” and is much more difficult to treat.

SYMPTOMS

•    Distress
•    Visible swelling of the rumen
•    Bloat can be a secondary symptom of another condition eg a physical obstruction in the oesphagus, or extremely swollen lymph glands eg with tuberculosis.

TREATMENT

In mild cases, walking the animal for 30 minutes will often encourage the belching reflex and the animal will release the gas build up.

If there is no response in 30 mins the animal should be drenched with a treatment designed for relief of bloat (BLOATGUARD DRENCH) or with liquid turpentine.

If this is not effective and as a last resort, the rumen has to be pierced with a trochar and canula and the gas released. The trochar is inserted into the left side of the animal, in the centre of the rumen, a space equidistant to the last rib, the hip and the vertebrae of the spine. Drench can be inserted into the rumen through the trochar to increase surface tension and help the gas bubbles to burst. Relief should be rapid.

PREVENTION

•    Feeding roughage such as dry hay before turning animals onto new young grazing
•    Feeding starchy foods eg concentrates at least 2 hours before turning animals onto Lucerne or clover
•    Lucerne should be cut and wilted for 24 hours rather than allowing animals to graze.

display on front:
Read More
  • Sheep & Goats

Blue Tongue in Sheep

There are many strains of the virus causing blue tongue and immunity against one strain will not necessarily protect the animal against another. Lambs can get passive immunity suckling from an immune ewe. For this reason lambs of vaccinated ewes should not be vaccinated until they are weaned. The virus may persist in meat and offal for long periods and is resistant to many chemicals. It can be killed by a 3% sodium hydroxide solution. African sheep are less susceptible than British and Merino breeds and yearlings are more susceptible than lambs or adults. The virus is transmitted via biting midges and possibly mosquitos. Antelopes and possibly cattle are symptomless carriers. The incidence of the disease is higher in wet, low lying areas. Morbidity is 50% and mortality can be 90%.

Symptoms

Fever, reddening of the nostrils and mouth, frothy saliva, nasal discharge which turns bloody. Eventually the lips, ears, jaw and mouth swell. The tongue swells and turns purple and becomes ulcerated. Secondary bacterial infections are common. Respiration becomes laboured, the animal goes down and cannot eat. The feet become infected, the animal has wry neck and may vomit. Death occurs after 6 days. Most animals die. The few that survive take many months to recover and will probably never be economically viable.

Treatment

There is no treatment against the blue tongue virus, but antibiotics will treat secondary bacterial infections.

Control

•    Don’t graze sheep in wet low-lying areas where the midge is present.
•    If possible, keep sheep separate from cattle and wild game.
•    Vaccination – 2 weeks after weaning, 3 weeks before breeding and then annually.
Ref:    http://www.iah.bbsrc.ac.uk/bluetongue/BT_clinical.pdf    Diseases and Parasites of Livestock in the Tropics. H.T.B. Hall

Read More
  • Sheep & Goats

Correct Methods of Drenching – Sheep and Goats

Drenching – giving a medicine or liquid preparation by mouth into the stomach of an animal.

  • Most worm remedies (anthelmintics) are administered by drenching (dosing), as are preparations such as bloat treatments, treatment for diarrhoea and constipation and other medicines.
  • Incorrect drenching can cause inhalation pneumonia, which is difficult to treat and can prove fatal.
  • It is essential that the farmer always follows manufacturers’ directions when administering any treatment by mouth.
  • Always use the correct dose for the age and size of the animal.
  • If an animal is weak or undernourished smaller doses should be used.
  • Animals naturally struggle when being drenched or dosed.
  • This may cause the operator to hurry the procedure, resulting in choking of the animal.
  • Often the animal’s head is held so high so that it cannot swallow properly.
  • Liquids should be given slowly, allowing the animal time to swallow.
  • The head should be held firmly but not so high as to impede swallowing.
  • If the animal being treated begins to choke or cough; the procedure must be stopped and the head released.
  • Wait a few minutes for the animal to recover before continuing.
  • Sheep and goats can be drenched with a bottle, a spoon, a dosing gun or a stomach tube.
  • The stomach tube is most commonly used to get milk or colostrum into the gut of weak lambs who are unable to suckle.
  • The stomach tube used for sheep and lambs is softer, shorter and has a smaller diameter than that used for horses or cattle.
  • To pass the stomach tube, first measure the tube on the outside of the lamb so you can see how far to insert it.
  • Lay the tube along the lamb from the tip of its nose, along the neck and side, so the tip lies at the last rib.
  • Mark the tube at the nose and this will show the length to insert.
  • Hold the lamb between your legs to restrain it, but let it stand on the floor.
  • Open mouth slightly with your fingers and begin inserting tube over tongue and back into mouth and throat.
  • The lamb will resist a little at this but usually not too severely.
  • As the end of the tube gets into the neck region, watch along the left side of the neck and you can probably see the tube moving on down the oesophagus.
  • Don’t force the tube.
  • If it is obstructed and won’t push on easily, withdraw it slightly and try again.
  • If the lamb begins trying to cough, the tube may be in the trachea (windpipe) and must be withdrawn so the tip is back in the mouth and then try again.
  • If the tube is in so the mark is now at the tip of the nose, it should be into the stomach.
  • Attach the syringe with colostrum or milk to the tube and infuse it through the tube.

REF:    Handbook of Stock Diseases; Monnig and Veldman
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Sheep_drenching.JPGhttp://www.tvsp.org…

 

Read More
  • Sheep & Goats

Ectoparasites of Sheep and Goats

Ectoparasities of sheep and goats do not generally cause heavy mortalities unless the infestation is extreme, but they will cause unthriftiness and loss of production if not controlled. Animals in poor health or low levels of nutrition are more likely to be affected and young animals are more susceptible.
The main external parasites found in Southern Africa affecting sheep and goats are
1.    Ticks
2.    Mites
3.    Fleas and lice
4.    Nasal worm (Oestrus ovis)
Ticks
Ticks are more commonly found on goats and unwoolled sheep. They can cause anaemia resulting from blood loss, especially in lambs and kids, and open sores which then become a site for screw-worm infestation.
Ticks also transmit disease – the most common in Zimbabwe being heartwater. They also cause tick toxicosis (sweating sickness) and tick paralysis (also known as Karoo paralysis) These both affect young animals and may be fatal. Tick paralysis may also affect man.
To control ticks, sheep and goats must be dipped regularly with an approved acaracide. (See Dipping Cattle, Sheep and Goats) Most acaricides registered for sheep will control ticks, mites and lice.
Mites
There are many species of mites, but most are harmless. The two economically important conditions caused by mites are SHEEP SCAB and MANGE.
  • Mange is caused by several different species but the most important are Sarcoptes Spp which cause Sarcoptic Mange. This is a contagious condition more common in goats than sheep, and rarely seen in woolly sheep. The mites burrow into the skin of the animal causing thickening and wrinkling of the skin with thick crust formation. Other mites include Psoroptes caprae found in the ears of goats, which can result in deafness if not diagnosed and treated. Chorioptes Sp are found on the legs of goats and horses. It causes extreme itchiness and the affected animal will often stamp its legs continually.
  • Sheep scab (See picture) is a scheduled disease, luckily not commonly found in Zimbabwe. It is caused by the mite Psoroptes ovis and is highly contagious. It is found only in sheep and the mite does not live anywhere but on the body of the sheep. The life cycle is 10 days in optimum conditions so the spread of disease can be extremely rapid. The mite bites into the skin, feeding on lymph and causing inflammation and irritation. Lymph flows out of the bite wounds, forming thick scabs and causing the wool to drop out. It causes extreme itchiness and distress to the affected animal. DECTOMAX INJECTABLE controls Sarcoptic Mange mites and Lice
Fleas and Lice
These are found where animals are kept in close confinement, over-crowded and where the environment is warm and humid. Infestation cause anaemia, especially in young animals and damage to the skin leading to losses on hides and wool. Control is by dipping, avoiding over-crowding, regular cleaning of houses and changing of bedding if this is used. (See Flea Control in Dogs)
Nasal Bots (Oestrus ovis)
The fly deposits its larvae at the nostrils of the sheep. The larvae or maggots crawl up the nasal passage into the frontal sinuses. The worm grows rapidly in the sinuses, particularly in warm weather and may be fully grown in a month. It has two strong hooks at the front end and is covered in small spines. This obviously causes extreme irritation to the sheep and results in sneezing, head shaking, respiratory distress syndromes and copious nasal discharge. It also may cause secondary bacterial infections. Although the bot does not cause too much damage to the sheep, a heavy infestation causes such irritation that the sheep will feed poorly and lose condition. DECTOMAX INJECTABLE is effective against nasal bots.
Ref:
•    Diseases of Small Ruminants Handbook – Common Diseases of Sheep and Goats in Sub-Saharan Africa by Lughano Kusiluka and Dominic Kambarage
•    Handbook on Stock Diseases – Monnig and Veldman
display on front:
Read More
  • Sheep & Goats

Flukes in Cattle, Sheep and Goats

The three main flukes affecting cattle, sheep and goats are liver fluke, conical fluke and the bilharzia fluke.

Liver fluke – Fasciola hepatica Fasciola Gigantica

The liver fluke affects cattle, sheep goats, pigs, horses, hares and man. Adults live in the bile ducts of the liver where they mate and lay eggs. The eggs are passed through the bile to the intestine where they are passed out in the dung. Flukes need standing water to survive. If water is available the larvae hatch and enter snails who are the intermediate hosts. A complex life cycle takes place in the snail, apparently including multiplication, so many worms 3rd stage larvae leave the snail and swim about in the water. They attach to water plants and form a protective cyst which is eaten by the animal or swallowed with the water. The larvae reach the small intestine, migrate through the abdominal cavity and penetrate the liver, eventually reaching the bile duct where they mature into adults. It can take only 4 – 6 weeks from the larva being ingested to an egg-producing adult in the bile duct. The adult feeds on the lining of the bile duct and sucks blood. This results in anaemia, weakness, pale mucous membranes of the mouth and eye and oedema beneath the jaw – a typical symptom of liver fluke infestation. The worm interferes with digestion and liver function and animals are in poor condition showing weight loss and loss of production.
Life cycle of the liver fluke: http://uk.merial.com/producers/dairy/fluke_facts
Treatment and Control
•    Animals should always drink from safe, uncontaminated water sources eg boreholes, wells, covered tanks. If this is impossible, measures should be taken to control the snail with copper sulphate, but this is short-term and not very effective.
•    Animals should be dosed in November – after the start of the rains and again at the end of the rains.
•    Examination of the livers at slaughter will give an indication of the degree of infestation.
NILZAN BOLUS is effective against liver fluke in cattle, and unlike most flukicides it has no withdrawal period, so it the treatment of choice for dairy cattle.
VALBAZEN SHEEP is effective against liver fluke in sheep.
RANOX is used in sheep, cattle and goats for the treatment of liver fluke.

Conical Fluke – Paramphistomum cervi

Conical fluke affects cattle, sheep and goats. It is a small red pear-shaped parasite which lives in the rumen of the animal. It attaches by a sucker and feeds from the stomach contents of the animal. The life cycle is similar to the liver fluke, requiring water and a water snail for the intermediate stages. The larvae are swallowed in encysted form. When the cyst reaches the small intestine the larvae is stimulated to leave the cyst by the presense of digestive juices and bile. They grow in the small intestine for 5 – 8 weeks, then crawl forward to the rumen and grow to adult stage. They mate and lay and the eggs are passed out in the dung. The adults in the rumen cause little or no damage; however the young stages in the intestine may be very harmful and can even cause death if present in large enough numbers. The irritation of the intestine causes diarrhea and the animals are mal-nourished as the flukes are taking essential nutrients from the stomach contents.
Treatment and Control as for liver fluke

Bilharzia – Schistosoma mattheei

Although not common, bilharzia can cause losses in cattle and goats and is particularly virulent in sheep.
It lives in the blood vessels close to the intestine. Eggs are laid in the small veins of the intestine, pushed through the vessel walls by muscle movements and passed out of the animal. Some of the eggs remain in the blood stream and are carried to the liver.
The eggs require water to hatch and their life-cycle is similar to liver fluke. The small worms are swallowed, or penetrate the skin of the legs of animals or man and reach the veins where they grow into adults. They are blood-suckers and will cause anaemia when numerous. This can become severe, with enteritis and pneumonia. Sheep particularly may die. On post mortem, the lungs, liver and other organs may appear dark grey. The liver is damaged – it appears small, hard and misshapen with an uneven surface.
Treatment
Bilharzia can be treated with Praziquantel, which is very expensive and animals may take a long time to recover condition.
Control and Prevention
As with the other flukes, keeping animals from wet vleis, using protected water sources.
Bilharzia is particularly dangerous because of its effect on man.
Read More
  • Sheep & Goats

Fly Control

The main nuisance flies in Zimbabwe are the common house fly (Musca domestica) and the stable fly (Stomoxys calcitrans).These constitute a major source of economic loss to livestock breeders for two reasons:
1.    They cause loss of production in terms of milk and meat because of the stress placed on animals under attack and
2.    More importantly, they transmit disease from infected to sick animals e.g. opthalmia, mastitis, parafilariasis.
Any fly control program must take place early in the breeding season i.e. as the weather starts to warm up, after the first shower and before the first major rains. If started too late, the fly population will be so high that it may be impossible to control it. To be successful, a fly control program must target all stages of the fly life cycle at the same time and must rely on management and biological methods as well as insecticides.
Flies lay their eggs on rotting vegetable matter, manure, refuse etc. They need a damp, (but not too wet) and warm environment. The first control method is to remove potential breeding sites.  Animal housing such as calf pens, poultry houses, piggeries, stables etc should be kept clean and hygienic. Particular attention should be paid to areas such as drains. Manure must be collected and treated in one of several ways. Composting the manure in heaps causes the manure to heat up to such an extent that the eggs and maggots cannot survive. The surface of the compost will have to be covered or treated with a product such as Neproex 50. Drying the manure removes the moisture necessary for development of the maggot and is also a friendly environment for predators of the eggs and maggots. A third option is to wet the manure excessively e.g. dairy slurry pits, where the environment is too wet to allow successful breeding by the flies.
Flies rest on buildings, walls, ceilings and these areas should be sprayed to run off with a recognised insecticide, such as Agita 10WG, following the manufacturer’s instructions.
The third area to attack flies is on the animals while they are feeding. Synthetic pyrethroids such as Deltatick Pouron, Ektoban, Paracide, Pouricide NF and Sentinel 15 will kill flies landing on the animal.
There are also many types of fly traps on the market, or it is possible to make them oneself. However, fly traps on their own, without any of the abovementioned control methods will have little chance of controlling the fly population.
Read More
  • Sheep & Goats

Methods of Dipping Cattle, Sheep and Goats

1.    Plunge Dips – See Construction of a Cattle Dip Tank and Correct Dipping Procedure .
2.    Spray Race
3.    Topical Treatment – “Pour-Ons”
4.    Hand Spraying
5.    Hand Dressing
6.    Belly baths – sheep and goats.
7.    Injectable Parasiticides

Plunge Dip Tanks

Plunge dip tanks are the preferred method of dipping large numbers, especially beef cattle. If constructed and used correctly plunge dips ensure complete wetting of the animal, particularly the important areas such as inside the ears and under the tail where ticks are found. Sheep and goats can be effectively dipped in a plunge dip but a handler must be ready to assist them when necessary. They may have to be physically thrown into the dip and prevented from turning around once in the dip tank.
Plunge dips must be correctly used and maintained to ensure adequate tick control
•    They are expensive to construct and to maintain.
•    It is essential to keep accurate dipping and replenishment records; understrength dipping leads to inadequate tick control and tick resistance to acaricides.
•    Evaporation and dilution by rain can cause inaccurate readings.
•    Every animal, except very small calves and heavily pregnant cows must be dipped every dip day. Any animal not going through the plunge must be hand-sprayed or dressed.
Products: PARACIDE, SUPADIP, TRIATIX WP, TICKBUSTER WP

Spray Race

The cattle spray race is a gentler method of dipping and more suitable for dairy cows, as there is less chance of injury. Dip is changed at every dip-day, unlike the plunge dip, so it is always at strength. However, correct maintenance and procedures must be followed to ensure adequate cover and effective tick control.
•    Nozzles must be correctly adjusted and regularly removed and cleaned to ensure even cover.
•    Effective filtration to keep dipwash clean
•    The spray race must have the correct pressure. The dipwash must penetrate the animals coat without forming a mist. If pressure is too low, dipwash will not penetrate the coat effectively and will not go into the animals ears or under the tail.
•    It is virtually impossible to persuade sheep and goats to go through a spray race, although if they are used to running with the cattle, they may follow the cattle through!
Products: EKTOBAN, PARACIDE, SUPADIP, TRIATIX SPRAY, TICKBUSTER SPRAY

Topical Treatments (Pourons)

Pour-ons are concentrated acaracides which are applied topically to the animals skin in small doses. They contain a spreading agent, usually oil-based, which allows the dip to spread over the skin of the animal. Pourons can be used on small numbers of animals or for a temporary measure but should not be relied on for complete tick control.
•    Most pourons are also effective against flies and midges and play a useful role in fly control programmes.
•    Pourons are more expensive than plunge or spray dips.
•    Animals must be dry when pourons are applied and may be ineffective if the animals are rained on shortly after treatment.
•    Pourons can be used on goats and sheep without wool. They are not effective on woolly sheep, as they do not penetrate the wool.
Products: DRASTIC DEADLINE, DELTATICK POURON, POURACIDE NF

Hand-spraying

Hand spraying is an effective method of tick control for a few animals who do not justify the expense of a spray race or plunge dip eg on small-scale commercial dairy farms.
•    . Hand-spraying is a cheaper method of tick control than pourons.
•      An effective knapsack sprayer must be used and the pressure set that the animal is wet thoroughly without the spray forming a mist. 7 – 9 litres of dipwash is required per head for cattle, less for sheep and goats.
•    Spraying should be against the grain of the hair to ensure wetting of the skin.
•    Hand-spraying can be used for tick control in sheep and goats.
Products: EKTOBAN, PARACIDE SUPADIP TRIATIX SPRAY TICKBUSTER SPRAY

Hand Dressing

Hand dressing is the topical application of tick greases or oils to parts of the animal where ticks congregate, eg in the ears, under the tail-head. It should not be used as a complete method of tick control but can be used as a spot treatment between dip-days or in addition to any of the other methods of tick control. Tick greases and oils stick better to hairless skin and generally have a fairly long residual period.
Sheep and goats can be hand-dressed.
Products: BETA TICK GREASE

Belly Baths – Sheep and Goats

Where tick infestation is mainly on the belly and legs of sheep and goats, a belly bath may be used. The head may need to be treated separately, either by spraying or hand-dressing. If the whole animal is to be immersed, a bath can be made with a 200 litre drum, but care must be taken to smooth of cut edges and it is physically demanding as the animals have to be man-handled into the bath. Only suitable for small numbers of animals.
Products: PARACIDE, SUPADIP, TRIATIX SPRAY, TICKBUSTER SPRAY

Injectable Parasiticides

These are used for the control of internal parasites but also have some efficacy against ticks. They are too expensive to be used for total tick control and are usually only effective against single-host ticks. (Blue tick)
Products: DECTOMAX INJ
display on front:
Read More
  • Sheep & Goats

Post-Mortem Techniques in Livestock

Post mortem (PM) is the procedure carried out after death to determine the cause of death. It is a specialised procedure, requiring a good knowledge of animal anatomy. The operator needs to know what normal healthy tissue looks like and this cannot be learnt from books, only from experience. The farmer should attend post mortems conducted by the vet and look at healthy tissue at abattoirs etc.
Before beginning the PM it is important to make note of place, date, owner’s name, species, number of animals affected, number of deaths, breed, sex, age, brand or tag number, hours since death and the history. The post mortem should take place as soon after death as possible. Ideally a second person should take notes as the PM progresses.

Equipment required

  • Rubber boots, protective clothing, rubber apron or lab coat, rubber gloves.
  • Knives – large and small, with sharpening steel.
  • Scissors (various sizes) and saws; bone cutters
  • A number of sterile, open-mouthed screw top jars of different sizes for specimen collection
  • Formalin (40% formaldehyde)
  • Sterile swabs in test tubes
  • Alcohol cleaned slides for smears, preferably in a rack or box
  • Spatula
  • Plastic bags for specimens
  • Petri dishes
  • Labels
  • Soap, water, disinfectant and towel.
All samples e.g. smears, slides, tissue sections, should be labeled and stored as they are taken.

Procedure

  • Carefully note external abnormalities. Check orifices, genitals and mammary glands. Make note of any injuries, wounds, parasites.
  • Unless you suspect anthrax or rabies lay back the skin
  • Remove the udder in females and the genitals in males. Cut away the front leg by incision under the shoulder blade. Open the abdominal cavity by incision from sternum to pubes.
  • Check and note whether there is peritoneal fluid in the cavity. Make note of amount and colour. Check absence or presence of fat and intestinal gas.
  • Open the thoracic cavity along the diaphragm. Cut through the sternum at the centre point and saw through the upper ribs. Note whether there is fluid in the thoracic cavity and pericardial sack.
  • Remove the 4 parts of the stomach in ruminants, or the stomach in non-ruminants and the spleen by cutting the oesphagus and small intestine. Before cutting, tie off the gullet and small intestine in 2 places and cut between them. This prevents gut contents from spilling into the area. Remove the rest of the alimentary canal, tying off at the rectum.
  • Examine the liver in position. Make note of size, colour, shape, presence of cysts, texture etc. Note gall bladder and contents. Remove the liver and take tissue section for laboratory analysis.
  • Remove and examine the kidneys. Note the amount of fat, size, consistency and colour.
  • Examine the bladder and note amount and colour of urine.
  • Remove the thoracic organs. The heart is removed by cutting through the large blood vessels suspending it. The lungs are removed by cutting the trachea. The heart sack is now cut open and any abnormalities noted. The lungs are examined for elasticity, colour, and texture, presence of froth or solidification.
  • All other organs – tongue, pharynx, larynx, and oesophagus are removed and examined. Tissue sections may be taken for lab analysis.
  • The head is sawed open and the brain and cavities of the head examined.
  • Lymph nodes are examined throughout and abnormalities noted.
  • The organs receiving the most attention will be those related to the disease symptoms of the animal or the disease suspected.
BEWARE !!! If you have any reason to suspect anthrax or rabies as the cause of death, or in the cases of unexplained sudden death, the carcass must never be opened. If anthrax is suspected, a blood slide taken from a cut on the ear is sent to the labs for confirmation. If rabies is suspected – the head should be removed intact and sent to the lab in a sealed container. For small animals the whole carcass can be sent.
In both cases, protective clothing, including boots, gloves, face mask and goggles must be worn. The carcasses should be burned or deep buried under stones with quick-lime.
Read More